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Scientific breakthroughs and discoveries

Discoveries that changed our understanding of the world.

Diagram of the penicillin core structure; a modern scientific illustration.Scientific milestone

The discovery and development of penicillin

Turning an observation about mould into a treatment for bacterial infection.

Modern molecular illustration of a section of the DNA double helix.Scientific milestone

The DNA double helix

Explaining how DNA's molecular structure could carry and copy genetic information.

Human Genome Project emblem.Scientific milestone

The Human Genome Project

Producing a shared reference sequence of the human genome.

Plots of the GW150914 signals recorded at the two LIGO observatories.Scientific milestone

The first detection of gravitational waves

Measuring ripples in spacetime from two merging black holes.

A child receiving oral polio vaccine in a later immunisation campaign, not the injected Salk vaccine of 1955.Scientific milestone

The first polio vaccine rollout

Bringing an effective vaccine against paralytic polio into widespread use.

A later Latin translation of Ptolemy’s Almagest, associated with George of Trebizond, c. 1451; not a manuscript from Abbasid Baghdad.Cultural history

Astronomical translation in Abbasid Baghdad

Bringing astronomical knowledge across languages into new scholarly work.

A modern typeset rendering of verses on the kuttaka method from the Aryabhatiya; not an original manuscript.Scientific synthesis

Aryabhata's mathematical astronomy

A compact mathematical and astronomical work that shaped later calculation and commentary.

The title page of a 1572 Latin optical collection containing work by Ibn al-Haytham and Witelo; a later printed transmission.Scientific treatise

Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics

An experimental and mathematical account of vision based on light entering the eye.

Liquid oxygen in a modern photograph; an illustration of the substance, not of the eighteenth-century experiments.Scientific breakthrough

Discovery of oxygen and the chemical revolution

Experiments with gases overturning an influential explanation of combustion.

A modern periodic table; not Mendeleev's original 1869 arrangement.Scientific synthesis

Mendeleev's periodic table

Organising elements into recurring patterns and predicting properties of missing members.

A modern map of Earth's principal tectonic plates and boundary types.Scientific breakthrough

Plate tectonics synthesis

A unified explanation of moving continents, ocean floors, earthquakes and mountain building.

A portrait of Alfred Russel Wallace, co-author of the 1858 natural-selection announcement.Scientific announcement

Darwin and Wallace's natural selection announcement

The joint presentation of two independently developed explanations of evolution by natural selection.

A molecular visualisation of Cas9 with guide RNA and target DNA.Biotechnology breakthrough

CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing

Turning a bacterial defence mechanism into a programmable tool for editing DNA.